Psychodynamic Counselling Concept Essay Example for Free

Psychodynamic Counselling Concept Essay In this essay I mainly discuss the theory and concepts behind psychodynamic counselling, followed by brief discussions of the practice and skills involved in working as a psychodynamic counsellor, and the client’s experience of counselling. Theory/concepts Psychodynamic counselling is mainly concerned with unconscious processes; it takes for granted that humans possess a largely unconscious inner world. Freud argued that while the conscious mind is governed by logic, the unconscious mind is not, and functions in a very literal way, motivated only to experience pleasure, unable to delay gratification. Although Psychodynamic counselling works with the conscious mind, it mainly focuses on unconscious processes. We have key figures in our lives – e.g. parents, carers, and partners are referred to as ‘objects’, and relationships with them termed ‘object relationships’. The phrase ‘object’ refers to the Freudian concept of the target, or object of the instinct. Object relationships embody not only actual relationships but also the ways that the conscious mind distorts them. The unconscious is viewed as dynamic and purposeful, having huge impact on emotions and behaviour. Psychodynamic theory posits that humans are driven by a need to remain unaware of uncomfortable truths that emerge from the unconscious, experiencing many conflicting needs and demands, e.g. between one’s own wishes and those of others. To deal with conflicts people develop ‘defences’, these include ‘repression’, a form of forgetting, ‘denial’, claiming that something is not upsetting when really it is, and ‘rationalisation’, where a story is created to account for that which feels uncomfortable. ‘Projection’ involves attributing to others characteristics unacceptable to the self, making assumptions about them based on the need to avoid threat. Psychodynamic counselling encourages the client to recognise and accept the troubling attribute, a process called ‘reintrojection’. To engage in projection a defence mechanism called, ‘splitting’, is used when one is finding it too  threatening to accept two opposing traits, such as being capable of both love and hate. It is natural to develop defences, but problems come with their overuse, e.g. using denial so often that problems are not faced. Applying defences too rigidly causes difficulties, and it’s when they start to disintegrate that individuals might seek counselling. Psychodynamic counselling holds that psychological symptoms emerge from the inner world. e.g., developmental problems or conflict may lead to anxiety or self-harm. The psychodynamic approach seeks to address these issues at their roots, as well as alleviating symptoms. Psychodynamic counselling is based on developmental theory, and asserts that childhood experiences affect adult personality. It is understood that episodic memory is physically unavailable to children under three, but that implicit memory and body memory function from an earlier age. Neuroscience now supports the concept that early emotional experiences influence brain development; the psychodynamic approach posits that the client-counsellor relationship is crucial to the process of change. This is considered in terms of three concepts, the first being transference: â€Å"All those impulses experienced by the patient in relation with the analyst which are not newly created by the objective analytic situation but have their source in early – indeed, the very earliest – object relations†. The counsellor may become aware of feelings in him/herself indicating issues that the client is unable to express; this is ‘counter transference’. The ‘real relationship’ is that which is free of the previous two dynamics. Within the client-counsellor relationship, elements of the client’s inner world can be revealed and become available for healing (Howard, 2011, p.22-25) Practice/skills Psychodynamic counselling employs a number of basic skills that are common to other approaches. It shares the core values of the Rogerian approach: empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard. The ability to listen is of course crucial. Summarising and reflecting back to the client what s/he has said are necessary skills, as well as being able to say things that the client will find difficult to hear. The following are skills specific to Psychodynamic counselling; Gaining informed consent involves informing the client of the nature, risks and benefits of counselling at the appropriate time; not so soon as to scare him/her away, but in good time. For this purpose it is advisable for the counsellor to be aware of when the assessment phase is concluding, as this is the best time to invite informed consent. The counsellor’s attention to the client is one element that facilitates change. The counsellor must alternate between close listening to the client and attention to how s/he will respond, alert to transference and counter transference. To be aware of both the conscious and unconscious elements of the client’s communication, the counsellor must practice ‘evenly suspended attention’. The counsellor must listen to unconscious communication as well as the explicit information the client is presenting. This includes being able to consider why the client is behaving and speaking as they are, linking this to issues arising in transference, and being able to raise such issues with the client. The counsellor will also make interpretations based on ‘extra transference’ – grasping connections between events, thoughts and behaviour unrelated to the client-counsellor relationship. The client’s experience Initially a client experiences the formal behaviour of the counsellor, sessions have boundaries of time, space, and confidentiality and these factors contribute to a sense of safety and predictability. The client should come to feel ‘held’ by the counselling experience, enabling him/her to feel able to explore painful issues and memories: â€Å"a safe space to lower one’s defences, be vulnerable and be held together.† Receiving a counsellor’s undivided attention contributes to this; Dibs In Search of Self illustrates an emotionally deprived child’s first experiences of undivided and non-judgemental attention, enabling him to blossom in self-discovery. A client goes through a process of developing informed consent, the transference relationship begins once enough trust is established, as it may be experienced as threatening. The client develops an attachment to the counsellor as someone who can help and care for them, and thus may become fearful both of their own needs and of being let down .The ending of the relationship can be painful for the client, and the counsellor should allow plenty of time to deal with issues around this. In conclusion, psychodynamic counselling functions to bring to awareness of the unconscious processes that govern the client’s inner life. A variety of practices are employed in order to supply a client with a sense of security as well as a source of challenge in order to facilitate positive change. References AXLINE, V. M., 1990. Dibs, In Search of Self. London: Penguin FREUD, A., 1937. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. London: Hogarth HOWARD, S., 2011. Psychodynamic Counselling in a Nutshell. 2nd edition. London: Sage. HOWE, D., 1993. On Being a Client. London: Sage

A Comparison of Beowulf and Icelandic Sagas Essays -- comparison compa

Beowulf and Icelandic Sagas  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are many similarities between the hero of the poem Beowulf and the heroes of the two Icelandic sagas, The Saga of The Volsungs and The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki. The former saga is an Icelandic saga representing oral traditions dating back to the fourth and fifth centuries, when Attila the Hun was fighting on the northern fringes of the Roman Empire; the latter is an Icelandic saga representing 1000 years of oral traditions prior to the 1300’s when it was written.    An unknown author wrote The Saga of The Volsungs in the thirteenth century, basing his story on far older Norse poetry. Iceland was settled by the Vikings about 870-930, who took to that land the famous lay of Sigurd and the Volsungs. Native Icelandic poets loved the story of Sigurd and the Huns, Goths, Burgundians, with whom this hero interacted. This prose story is based on traditional Norse verse called Eddic poetry, a form of mythic or heroic lay which developed before 1000 in the oral folk culture of Old Scandinavia. The Icelandic skald is the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon scop. He was a storyteller. Icelandic material builds on a long oral tradition just like Anglo-saxon. Skalds stayed in the royal courts of Scandinavia like their counterparts to the south.    In The Saga of the Volsungs the hero Sigurd is the one who corresponds best with the hero Beowulf in the Anglo-Saxon tradition. George Clark in â€Å"The Hero and the Theme† mentions: â€Å"The form of Beowulf taken as a whole suggests both the ‘Bear’s Son’ folktale type (especially as we find it in Scandinavia) and the ‘combat myth’. . . .† (286). The â€Å"combat myth† is probably what this saga is. When Sigurd was born, he was the grandson of Ki... ...celandic sagas, The Song of the Volsungs and The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, contain remarkable similarities between their main characters and Beowulf’s main character; they   are just too astounding to dismiss as mere coincidences.    BIBLIOGRAPHY    Chickering, Howell D.. Beowulf A dual-Language Edition. New York: Anchor Books, 1977.    Clark, Gorge. â€Å"The Hero and the Theme.† In A Beowulf Handbook, edited by Robert Bjork and John D. Niles. Lincoln, Nebraska: Uiversity of Nebraska Press, 1997.    The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, translated by Jesse L. Byock. New York: Penguin Books, 1998.    The Saga of the Volsungs, translated by Jesse L. Byock. New York: Penguin Books, 1990.    Ward & Trent, et al. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1907–21; New York: Bartleby.com, 2000.   

Bad habits

â€Å"There are a thousand excuses for failure, but never a good reason†, I agree. Some psychologists think that bad and good habits people get through lifetime period. If so, then people can get rid of undesirable habits, but how? Some people would say that to get rid of bad habits is easy when person has a desire. Also, some will say that who love God can rely on his help and blessing. However, a lot of people would say that it is not that easy to kick a bad habit.In fact, bad habits affect our lives actively, but when person follow these steps, she can easily overcome a problem. First of all, people should find a motivation to stop a bad habit. A person who has a motivation is always looking for solutions while others are looking for reasons and excuses. Before person makes any bad move in her life, she should ask herself one question: â€Å"For what or for whom I should stop doing a bad habit? † A lot of people would say that it is not worth it. However, some people would stop their bad habit for the loved ones.For example, there is could be internal reason for solving this robber. People often break bad habits because they do not want to spoil their children. Moreover, children usually pick up bad habits from parents and peers. To prevent that unlikable situation, parents would do their best for break a habit. Also, smoking is a cause of heart and lung diseases. Moreover, smoking can cause a cancer. 90% of lung cancer patients developed their disease because of smoking. There is, also, external reason for motivation. For example, smoking is a cause of yellow teeth, super dry skin and breaking hair.Smokers often are nervous, irritable, old not focus their thoughts, and could not sleep well. These causes affect peoples social life in many ways. Therefore, smokers have difficulties in Job interviews and relationships because they have low self-esteem and self-confidence. All in all, West Virginia University about the bad habits say:† if yo u want to quit smoking, you should focus on decreasing your risk of lung cancer and heart disease. If you are driven by positive motivation, think of how much whiter your teeth will be and how much more breath you will have when you climb stairs.Also, you will save some money by not eying cigarettes. † Second, create conditions and be away from people who have bad addictions. People learn the features of behavior in their environment. It is very difficult to deny alcohol in the cheerful company of friends. In Russia, for instance, when people are visiting each other at home, they should drink three shots of vodka before they enter the house. However, even when person is not drinking at all, householder finds it unrepeatable and would not ask that person to come to his house again.Another example, at the party there are two groups: in-group and out- roof. In-group people are those who run the party. Of course, alcohol is included for this group. However, people from out-group d o not have bad addictions. In-group can make bad Jokes and encourage drinking, and out-group does not feel themselves such as all, so they Just can give up. Nevertheless, not only alcohol can make people in-group. Furthermore, if person is attractive, interesting and outgoing, he do not need alcohol to be in-group. Briefly, to be separated from those who have bad habits, does not mean to be away from them.It is mean, that people should put a task in heir head, for do not give up on the goal to break a habit.. That is how people separate themselves at parties. Briefly, people should follow some quote in life, for pushing themselves for something valuable. Third, people should never give up, but go to their target to the end. People should not be disappointed after the first obstacle. This is not the end of the world. Nothing comes easy, especially when people are trying to get rid of bad habits that exist in their lives. For instance, I knew the girl Katherine. She was drinking beer every single night.Katherine wasn't aware of her problem until she got an addiction to alcohol. Moreover, she lost communication with her friends. For them, she was simply alcoholic. She was like a blind Capitan who can not notice a leak in the vessel until it finally sinking. Soon, Katherine understood that she needs to get rid of her addiction. For this purpose, Katherine started looking for a solution. After a lot of tries, she finally found a solution. Instead of bottle of beer, she was drinking a glass of orange Juice. There were a lot of doubts from her friends that she not going to cake it.They Just did not believe in her. Although, she did not give herself up, but was fighting with her bad habit till it gone. Indeed, Katherine throws away a bad habit of her because she believed in herself. Fourth, do not make any exceptions. When people decide to kick bad habits, in any case or situations do not give concessions. Once people start thinking: â€Å"Oh, today is a nervous day, so I can smoke one cigarette†, or â€Å"l would not gain weight if I will have some ice-cream. † Our bad habits begin to fight for a place in people's life. When people make exceptions, it s an illusion to break a bad habit.The number of exceptions will increase every day until the bad habit will not take his place again. For example, humans can imagine that our good and bad habits like two wolves that always are fighting with each other. Who will win? Answer is the wolf whom you feed will win. Nevertheless, stop feed and give support to a bad habit. â€Å"If you do not pour water on your plant, what will happen? It will slowly wither and die. Our habits will also slowly wither and die away if we do not give them an opportunity to manifest. You need not fight to stop a habit.Just don't give it an opportunity to repeat itself. (67)† ? Swami Statisticians, The Yoga Sutras. Last step is to imagine you without a bad habit. Just turn an imagination, and you will see yourself succeed. The people are very likable to a person without a bad habit. People don't like see you hiding your hands because of bitten nails or smell the cigarette smoke from someone's mouth. Let it all go! Imagine, when you are going to give a speech in front of many people, you would not stammer in front of audience, but behave discreetly and fluently. Imagination acts as hypnosis.If a person presents himself without bad habits, he subconsciously is hypnotize himself to quit one. As a result, a person could get rid of the bad habit. For instance, I was biting my nails. I wanted to quit hundreds of times, but couldn't. Then I started imagine myself as a bride, but how bride would have bitten nails in the ceremony? How the groom would put the ring on the bride hand? Consequently, I quit biting my nails. In short, imagination helped me to get rid of nail biting problem. Imagination set a desire to be better person, and to increase in someone's eyes.TO conclude, bad addictions c ause an unpleasant influence in our life. Bad habits have negative impact on people's health and social life. However, people can overcome them by find a motivation, create conditions and be away from people with bad habits, never give up, do not make any exceptions, and turn imagination in which there is no place for a bad habit. â€Å"Bad habits are like a comfortable bed, easy to get into, but hard to get out of. † ?Unknown. If people would follow these steps, they can kick bad habits very willingly. Bad habits â€Å"There are a thousand excuses for failure, but never a good reason†, I agree. Some psychologists think that bad and good habits people get through lifetime period. If so, then people can get rid of undesirable habits, but how? Some people would say that to get rid of bad habits is easy when person has a desire. Also, some will say that who love God can rely on his help and blessing. However, a lot of people would say that it is not that easy to kick a bad habit.In fact, bad habits affect our lives actively, but when person follow these steps, she can easily overcome a problem. First of all, people should find a motivation to stop a bad habit. A person who has a motivation is always looking for solutions while others are looking for reasons and excuses. Before person makes any bad move in her life, she should ask herself one question: â€Å"For what or for whom I should stop doing a bad habit? † A lot of people would say that it is not worth it. However, some people would stop their bad habit for the loved ones.For example, there is could be internal reason for solving this robber. People often break bad habits because they do not want to spoil their children. Moreover, children usually pick up bad habits from parents and peers. To prevent that unlikable situation, parents would do their best for break a habit. Also, smoking is a cause of heart and lung diseases. Moreover, smoking can cause a cancer. 90% of lung cancer patients developed their disease because of smoking. There is, also, external reason for motivation. For example, smoking is a cause of yellow teeth, super dry skin and breaking hair.Smokers often are nervous, irritable, old not focus their thoughts, and could not sleep well. These causes affect peoples social life in many ways. Therefore, smokers have difficulties in Job interviews and relationships because they have low self-esteem and self-confidence. All in all, West Virginia University about the bad habits say:† if yo u want to quit smoking, you should focus on decreasing your risk of lung cancer and heart disease. If you are driven by positive motivation, think of how much whiter your teeth will be and how much more breath you will have when you climb stairs.Also, you will save some money by not eying cigarettes. † Second, create conditions and be away from people who have bad addictions. People learn the features of behavior in their environment. It is very difficult to deny alcohol in the cheerful company of friends. In Russia, for instance, when people are visiting each other at home, they should drink three shots of vodka before they enter the house. However, even when person is not drinking at all, householder finds it unrepeatable and would not ask that person to come to his house again.Another example, at the party there are two groups: in-group and out- roof. In-group people are those who run the party. Of course, alcohol is included for this group. However, people from out-group d o not have bad addictions. In-group can make bad Jokes and encourage drinking, and out-group does not feel themselves such as all, so they Just can give up. Nevertheless, not only alcohol can make people in-group. Furthermore, if person is attractive, interesting and outgoing, he do not need alcohol to be in-group. Briefly, to be separated from those who have bad habits, does not mean to be away from them.It is mean, that people should put a task in heir head, for do not give up on the goal to break a habit.. That is how people separate themselves at parties. Briefly, people should follow some quote in life, for pushing themselves for something valuable. Third, people should never give up, but go to their target to the end. People should not be disappointed after the first obstacle. This is not the end of the world. Nothing comes easy, especially when people are trying to get rid of bad habits that exist in their lives. For instance, I knew the girl Katherine. She was drinking beer every single night.Katherine wasn't aware of her problem until she got an addiction to alcohol. Moreover, she lost communication with her friends. For them, she was simply alcoholic. She was like a blind Capitan who can not notice a leak in the vessel until it finally sinking. Soon, Katherine understood that she needs to get rid of her addiction. For this purpose, Katherine started looking for a solution. After a lot of tries, she finally found a solution. Instead of bottle of beer, she was drinking a glass of orange Juice. There were a lot of doubts from her friends that she not going to cake it.They Just did not believe in her. Although, she did not give herself up, but was fighting with her bad habit till it gone. Indeed, Katherine throws away a bad habit of her because she believed in herself. Fourth, do not make any exceptions. When people decide to kick bad habits, in any case or situations do not give concessions. Once people start thinking: â€Å"Oh, today is a nervous day, so I can smoke one cigarette†, or â€Å"l would not gain weight if I will have some ice-cream. † Our bad habits begin to fight for a place in people's life. When people make exceptions, it s an illusion to break a bad habit.The number of exceptions will increase every day until the bad habit will not take his place again. For example, humans can imagine that our good and bad habits like two wolves that always are fighting with each other. Who will win? Answer is the wolf whom you feed will win. Nevertheless, stop feed and give support to a bad habit. â€Å"If you do not pour water on your plant, what will happen? It will slowly wither and die. Our habits will also slowly wither and die away if we do not give them an opportunity to manifest. You need not fight to stop a habit.Just don't give it an opportunity to repeat itself. (67)† ? Swami Statisticians, The Yoga Sutras. Last step is to imagine you without a bad habit. Just turn an imagination, and you will see yourself succeed. The people are very likable to a person without a bad habit. People don't like see you hiding your hands because of bitten nails or smell the cigarette smoke from someone's mouth. Let it all go! Imagine, when you are going to give a speech in front of many people, you would not stammer in front of audience, but behave discreetly and fluently. Imagination acts as hypnosis.If a person presents himself without bad habits, he subconsciously is hypnotize himself to quit one. As a result, a person could get rid of the bad habit. For instance, I was biting my nails. I wanted to quit hundreds of times, but couldn't. Then I started imagine myself as a bride, but how bride would have bitten nails in the ceremony? How the groom would put the ring on the bride hand? Consequently, I quit biting my nails. In short, imagination helped me to get rid of nail biting problem. Imagination set a desire to be better person, and to increase in someone's eyes.TO conclude, bad addictions c ause an unpleasant influence in our life. Bad habits have negative impact on people's health and social life. However, people can overcome them by find a motivation, create conditions and be away from people with bad habits, never give up, do not make any exceptions, and turn imagination in which there is no place for a bad habit. â€Å"Bad habits are like a comfortable bed, easy to get into, but hard to get out of. † ?Unknown. If people would follow these steps, they can kick bad habits very willingly.

Its Always Si Vous Voulez, Never Si Vous Voudriez

Mistakes will always be made in French, and now you can learn from them. In English, I would like is softer and more polite than I want, and French has a similar distinction.  Instead of je veux (present), one says je voudrais  (conditional). But theres a snag in this equation: English speakers want to say the polite  if you like or if you would like, and they often end up translating this into French as si vous voudriez. The Mistake But si vous voudriez  would be a mistake.  In French, you cant say  si vous voudriez  to mean if you would like, because the French  conditional can never be used after  si (if).  You can only say  si vous voulez. This goes for the whole conditional conjugation:  For instance, si je voudrais  is wrong. But you can say  si je veux. And  si tu voudrais is not possible. But you can say  si tu veux. Memorize every person in the conditional  present of vouloir to recognize what to avoid in polite statements that include a si clause: je voudraistu voudraisil voudraitnous voudrionsvous voudriezils voudraient Vouloir and Polite Requests The verb vouloir (to want or to wish), one of the most common French verbs and one of the most useful irregular verbs, also beautifully expresses polite requests  in the conditional without a si clause present.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Je voudrais une pomme.   I would like an apple.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Je voudrais y aller avec vous.   I would like to go with you. In general, the French conditional mood is very similar to the English conditional mood. It describes events that are not guaranteed to occur; often they are dependent on certain conditions. While the French conditional mood has a full set of conjugations, the English equivalent is just the modal verb would plus a main verb. The French conditional is mainly used in  if...then  sentences  to express what would happen if a condition were met. The conditional is in the result (then) part of the clause, not the clause that follows  si  (if).   Ã‚  Si nous à ©tudiions, nous serions plus intelligents.If we studied, (then) we would be smarter.